Chiles

• English:  chiles, chile peppers, chilis, chili peppers
• Spanish:  chile, chiles, ají, ajíes, chiles / ajíes frescos (fresh whole chiles), chiles secos (dried whole chiles), guindillas secas (dried whole chiles), pimentón (chile powder or paprika)
• Portuguese:  pimentas, malagueta
• French:   piments
• Italian:  peperoncini
• German:  chilischoten
• Dutch:  chilipepers
• Czech:  chilli papričky
• Hungarian:  csili paprika
• Greek:  tsíli
• Danish:  chilier
• Norwegian:  chilipepper
• Swedish:  chili
• Finnish:  chilipippurit
• Polish:  papryczki chili
• Turkish:  acı biber
• Hebrew:  pilpel charif
• Arabic:  filfil har
• Persian/ Farsi:  felfel chīlī
• Swahili:  pilipili
• Russian:  perets chili
• India  
  • Bengali:  morich
  • Hindi:  mirch
  • Gujarati:  marchy
  • Marathi:  mirchi
  • Sanskrit:  marichika
  • Tamil:  milagai
• Sri Lanka (Sinhala):  miris
• Burmese:  ngan bya ye
• Thai:  phrik
• Cambodia (Khmer):  mtés
• Vietnamese:  ớt
• Malay:  cili
• Indonesian:  cabai
• Filipino:  sili
• China
  • Mandarin:  làjiāo
  • Cantonese:  laat ziu
• Korean:  gochu
• Japanese:  tōgarashi

Chili pepper varieties have a wide range of nutritional content, but they also share similarities, like being rich in vitamin C. Here are the nutrition facts for the jalapeño as a representative example.

Source:  USDA FoodData Central

Daily Value % based on a 2,000 calorie diet

Chili peppers are renowned for their immense diversity in heat and flavor. Although there are tens of thousands of cultivars, the constituents of their chemical composition don’t change much - only their relative proportions. Here is a breakdown of the general chemical makeup of chiles, highlighting each compound’s culinary and medicinal properties:

Aroma & Flavor Compounds

• Capsaicinoids
  • Culinary:  The primary compounds responsible for the heat of chili peppers. The levels of capsaicinoids vary wildly depending on the variety - some peppers are mild and others are unbearably hot. They also contribute a subtle sweet or fruity flavor. Capsaicin is the most well-known, but there are over 20 different capsaicinoids that appear in chili peppers. 
  • Medicinal:  Potential pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Can also boost metabolism.
• Pyrazines
  • Culinary:  Add roasted, nutty, and earthy notes. They are responsible for the savory flavors that develop during the roasting, smoking, or drying process.
  • Medicinal:  Antioxidant properties and anticancer potential. 
• Limonene
  • Culinary:  A major component of citrus fruit peel essential oils - adds a bright, citrusy note.
  • Medicinal:  Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. It's also used to ease digestion, relieve anxiety, and boost mood.
• Pinene
  • Culinary:  True to its name, pinene adds an earthy, woody, fresh note reminiscent of pine and fir.
  • Medicinal:  Anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial potential. Also used for its positive effects on the respiratory system.
• Cineole
  • Culinary:  The primary compound in eucalyptus essential oil - adds a subtly sweet, minty note.
  • Medicinal:   Potent decongestant - used in many cough drops, chest rubs, and inhalants. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial potential. 
• Other Volatile Oils
  • Culinary:  Chili peppers contain a wide variety of volatile oils, including terpenes and esters, that range in flavor from grassy and green to fruity and floral. 
  • Medicinal:  Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory potential.

Other Phytochemicals

• Flavonoids
  • Culinary:  Contribute to pepper color and may subtly affect flavor.
  • Medicinal:  Potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
• Carotenoids
  • Culinary:  These pigments are responsible for the vibrant red, orange, and yellow colors of chili peppers.
  • Medicinal:  Potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Notes

• Since the macronutrients (fats, carbohydrates, proteins) and micronutrients (vitamins, minerals) are listed in the nutrition facts above, this section focuses on the compounds most responsible for a spice or herb's unique culinary and medicinal properties.
• Keep in mind that chemical composition can vary, mainly in proportion and concentration, but it is possible for certain compounds to be entirely absent. In fact, these variations are the reason for differences in quality. This is why spices are typically graded by measuring the levels of key compounds that directly contribute to aroma, flavor, and color.
• Composition variation (and hence, quality) is affected by plant part, variety/ cultivar, age/ freshness/ ripeness, region, terroir, environmental stressors, potential adulteration, and the techniques deployed throughout the following processes: cultivation, harvesting, processing (drying, curing), shipping, storage, and preparation (grinding, grating, infusing, roasting). A magnificent spice is thus a celebration of a complex journey, shaped by natural forces and human ingenuity.

For thousands of years, chiles have been treasured by traditional medicine systems around the world, especially in Latin America, India, and China. Scientists today are beginning to learn more about why this is as they explore the properties of chili peppers' bioactive compounds, capsaicinoids in particular. Here is an overview of some of the most promising areas of their medicinal potential:

• Pain Relief
  • Capsaicin, the compound responsible for chiles' infamous heat, has a unique ability to interact with pain receptors in the body. Initially causing a burning sensation, it ultimately desensitizes these receptors, reducing the perception of pain. Capsaicin also helps alleviate pain by depleting substance P, a neuropeptide involved in transmitting pain signals to the brain. This is why capsaicin is often found in topical creams and ointments for conditions like arthritis, muscle soreness, and nerve pain. Consuming chili peppers with food may not provide the same level of pain relief as capsaicin-based topical applications, but some research suggests that it may help to decrease pain sensitivity over time.
• Anti-inflammatory Properties
  • Capsaicin has demonstrated powerful anti-inflammatory effects, inhibiting the production of inflammatory molecules and blocking specific pathways within the body.
• Antioxidant Powerhouse
  • Chili peppers are rich in antioxidants, particularly vitamin A and C, flavonoids, and carotenoids like capsanthin and beta-carotene. These compounds help neutralize harmful free radicals in the body, preventing the cellular damage that is correlated with aging and disease. 
• Cardiovascular Health
  • Studies have shown that capsaicin may help to lower blood pressure, improve cholesterol levels, improve blood flow, and prevent the buildup of plaques in arteries. It also improves endothelial function and reduces inflammation, which in turn can reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke. 
• Metabolic Boost
  • Capsaicin has been shown to increase thermogenesis, the process by which the body burns calories to produce heat. This leads to a temporary boost in metabolism and increased energy expenditure, which can aid in weight management by increasing calorie burning and reducing appetite. While some studies suggest that regular consumption of chili peppers can help with weight loss, long-term effects are still under investigation.
• Antimicrobial Activity
  • Chili peppers have antimicrobial properties that help fight off harmful bacteria and other pathogens. This is also beneficial for maintaining a healthy gut biome.
• Digestive Health
  • Capsaicin can improve digestion by stimulating gastric juices. It also acts as an anti-inflammatory agent in the gut, but it should be consumed in moderation as excessive intake can irritate the digestive tract.
• Anticancer Properties
  • Some research indicates that capsaicin may have anticancer effects. It has been shown to inhibit the growth and spread of cancer cells by inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) and inhibiting angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels that supply tumors). 
• Respiratory Health
  • Capsaicin acts as a natural decongestant, helping to clear nasal passages. You may have noticed the immediacy of this effect after consuming a healthy dose of habanero. 
• Immune System Support
  • Chili peppers' high content of vitamins and antioxidants also support the immune system. Regular consumption of chiles may help enhance the body's defense mechanisms.
• Mood and Mental Health
  • Capsaicin can trigger the release of endorphins, the body's natural "feel-good" chemicals that improve mood and reduce stress. This endorphin release may contribute to the sensation of euphoria often experienced after consuming spicy foods. Some research also suggests that capsaicin may have antidepressant effects by influencing neurotransmitter activity.

Important Considerations

• Most Research is Preliminary:  While research is promising, more extensive human clinical trials are needed to definitively confirm the efficacy and safety of chili peppers' medicinal properties. 
• Dosage Matters:  Researchers commonly use concentrated extracts, so keep in mind that standard dietary consumption may not yield the same results. More studies are required to establish proper dosages and administration methods.
• Medication Interaction:  Chili peppers should not be considered a replacement for conventional medical treatments, and while they are generally safe for most people, it is critical to exercise moderation and consider potential interactions with other medications. 
• Disclaimer:  Consult healthcare professionals before using spices and herbs for medicinal purposes. 

Chiles have an air of mysticism about them. Their potency, their flavors, their efficacy, and their utility have always captivated us, across eras and cultures. Here are some of their popular alternative use cases:

• Spiritual and Cultural Significance
  • Latin America
    • In various indigenous cultures throughout Central and South America, chili peppers are deeply sacred. They are a conduit between the physical and spiritual world. In shamanic rituals, the smoke from burning chili peppers cleanses spaces of negative energies and helps the living make contact with ancestors or other spiritual beings. Specific chile varieties are also ingested to induce visions. 
  • Native American Cultures
    • Chili peppers are also important to the cultures of some Native American tribes. For example, in the Southwestern United States, the Pueblo peoples have long  believed that they possess healing properties. The heat of the chili is seen as a purifying force that can drive away illness and negativity, and is often the focus of ceremonies that promote physical and spiritual well-being.
  • Haiti
    • In the Caribbean, particularly in Haiti, chili peppers are integral to Vodou practices. They are believed to have powerful spiritual properties and are used in rituals to cleanse and protect people from evil forces. Similarly, the pepper's heat symbolizes the intensity of spiritual power, so consuming or handling chili peppers can strengthen one's connection to the spiritual realm.
  • West Africa
    • In many West African traditions, chili peppers are believed to have protective properties and are used in rituals to ward off evil spirits and bad luck. In Yoruba culture, for example, they are used in spiritual baths to purify the body and spirit. They are also included in charms and amulets designed to protect the wearer from harm. 
  • Mediterranean Cultures
    • Particularly in Italy and Greece, chili peppers are also associated with protection and are used in amulets to ward off the evil eye. In Southern Italy, a red chili pepper charm, known as a "cornicello," is worn to bring good luck and protect against envy and ill will. The shape of the chili pepper, resembling a horn, is also symbolic of virility and strength. 
  • India
    • In a practice known as "Nazar Battu," chili peppers are hung with lemons at the entrance of homes and businesses as a talisman to repel malevolent spirits and bring good luck. 
  • Korea
    • Chili peppers, particularly in the form of red pepper powder (gochugaru), hold cultural significance well beyond their culinary use. Red is a color associated with protection and good fortune in Korea and chili peppers are often seen as symbols of vitality and strength. During the traditional Korean festival called Chuseok, chili peppers are used in various rituals to honor ancestors and ensure a bountiful harvest. This time, the heat of the chili represents the warmth and energy of life, a fitting offering to the spirits.
• Defense Technology
  • Capsaicin is an essential component of pepper spray (hence the name) and other self-defense products because it can cause an intense burning sensation and temporary blindness.
• Food Preservation
  • Chili peppers' powerful antimicrobial properties make them a great natural food preservative. 
• Natural Dye
  • Chiles can be used to create natural dyes, producing vibrant reds, oranges, and yellows depending on the variety. These dyes offer a sustainable alternative to synthetic dyes, suitable for coloring textiles and other materials.
• Pest Control
  • Capsaicin-based sprays are used as natural pesticides to deter pests in gardens and farms.

Disclaimer:  While chili peppers show promise in these areas, it's important to manage expectations. Their effectiveness may be limited compared to commercial alternatives.

The world of chili peppers is immensely vast and diverse, with tens of thousands of varieties offering unique flavor profiles and varying levels of heat. There are many to choose from and they tend to be readily available, but if you're in need of some heat and flavor and you have no chiles on hand, you can try these options:

• Paprika
  • While paprika is made from certain varieties of chili peppers, it is generally milder and sweeter than most chili peppers used for heat, although some hot paprika varieties can get close. 
• Black Pepper + Paprika
  • Combining black pepper with paprika can mimic the heat and color of chili peppers. This blend works well in spice rubs and marinades.
• Crushed Red Pepper Flakes
  • Crushed red pepper flakes, typically made from cayenne or other red chili peppers, can be used to add heat to dishes. They are great for pizza, pasta, and stir-fries. Use them in slightly smaller amounts if you want to avoid an overwhelming heat.
• Gochugaru
  • A staple in Korean cuisine, gochugaru is made from sun-dried chili peppers and offers a moderate heat with a slightly smoky and fruity flavor. It is perfect for adding heat and flavor to soups and stews.
• Hot Sauce
  • Depending on the brand and type, hot sauce can serve as a liquid substitute for chili peppers. It can add both heat and flavor to dishes like marinades, dressings, and dips. Start with a few drops and adjust to taste.
• Mustard Powder
  • For a different kind of heat, mustard powder can be used to add a sharp, tangy kick to dishes. It is especially useful in sauces and dressings.
• Horseradish
  • Grated horseradish can provide a pungent heat similar to chili peppers. It's great for adding a sharp bite to condiments, sauces, and spreads. 

Notes

• Incomplete Substitution:  All spices and herbs are too complex to match exactly, so it's crucial to consider the specific characteristics you aim to replicate, such as certain aspects of its flavor, aroma, texture, or color.
• Quantity Adjustment:  Start with a small amount of the substitute and adjust to taste, as it won't be a perfect 1:1 exchange for the original's flavor or potency.
• Context:  Consider the dish you're making and how the substitute's entire flavor profile will merge with other ingredients. Each alternative brings its own properties that will influence the final dish differently.
• Experimentation:  Playing with substitutions is a great opportunity to explore how tastes and aromas interact. If you approach it with an open mind, you may really enjoy the process of fusing new flavors, and make some amazing discoveries along the way.

Originating in Mesoamerica, chili peppers, or chiles, have been cultivated for thousands of years. Archaeological evidence suggests that their domestication dates back to at least 7500 BCE in Mexico, making them one of the oldest cultivated crops in the region. Among the Aztecs and Mayans, chili peppers were deeply integrated into daily life - as a food, a medicine, and a spiritual symbol. The word "chili / chile" comes from the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs. They believed chili peppers could ward off evil spirits and were often used in religious offerings to deities. During the festival of Tlaloc, the god of rain, the Aztecs would offer chiles to ensure abundant rainfall and bountiful harvests. The Mayans also honored their gods with chili peppers. The Mayan word for chili, "ik," also means "wind" or "breath," signifying chiles’ connection to life force and spiritual energy. They were used in purification rituals, where their smoke was believed to cleanse the spirit and protect against negative energies. The heat of the chile symbolized the fiery power of the gods, and consuming it was a way to invoke their favor. 

Their journey to the rest of the world began with the voyages of Christopher Columbus. When he arrived in the Caribbean in the late 15th century, he initially mistook them for a type of black pepper since that was what he was seeking. But when he brought them back, Europeans quickly recognized the uniqueness of chili peppers, which ignited a culinary revolution. They were captivated by the vibrant colors, distinct heat and flavors, and health benefits of the many types of chili pepper. New varieties rapidly spread across the continent and the creation of new, milder cultivars became a lucrative endeavor all around Europe. Even non-spice varieties like bell peppers were born out of the continual chili hybridization experiment. When chilis reached Hungary in the 16th century, farmers there became obsessed with breeding pepper varieties for varying levels of heat and sweetness, and drying them in novel ways, resulting in the many types of the much-adored spice known as paprika.

The spice trade flourished as a result of this “chilimania” as European powers sought to establish direct routes to the Americas to secure access to this valuable spice. Portuguese and Spanish explorers played a crucial role in spreading chili peppers across the globe. By the 16th century, they had made their way to Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. They were immediately embraced. In India, they became deeply integrated into local cuisine, dramatically altering the flavor profiles of traditional dishes. Similarly, in China, they became a staple ingredient in Sichuan and Hunan cuisines, known for their bold and spicy flavors. The introduction of peppers to these regions led to the development of countless new dishes and culinary traditions focused on the spice's heat and flavor. It was truly a global renaissance with chilis at the center of it all. 

To this day, their popularity has not waned. Chili peppers remain a global phenomenon, cultivated on every continent except Antarctica, and nearly every country. They have a cultish following, with enthusiasts all over the world continually experimenting with new varieties to accentuate different qualities, such as the intense heat of the Carolina Reaper. With tens of thousands of cultivars, chili peppers are among the most hybridized plants on earth. The cultural significance of chiles is thriving as well, with festivals, competitions, and events constantly emerging to celebrate their vibrancy and versatility. Their spread from the Americas to literally the rest of the world exemplifies the profound impact that a unique group of plants can have on global culture. Their journey illustrates the power of spice to transcend borders, inspire passion, and bring people together through a shared love of flavor. For many, many generations to come, chiles will continue to ignite the world.